Chapter I The French Revolution

Overview and Introduction

This chapter explores the French Revolution, a pivotal event in shaping the modern world. It highlights how ideas of liberty, freedom, and equality, often taken for granted today, have a significant historical background. The revolution led to the end of monarchy in France, replacing a society based on privilege with a new system of governance. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen marked a new era, establishing the concept of inalienable rights and equality before the law. The chapter also touches upon the reinterpretation of these ideas in anti-colonial movements and contrasts the French Revolution with the Russian Revolution and the rise of Nazism.

French Society During The Late Eighteenth Century

In the late 18th century, French society was divided into three estates:

• First Estate: The Clergy.
• Second Estate: The Nobility.
• Third Estate: Everyone else, including peasants (90% of the population), artisans, merchants, lawyers, administrative officials, and the poor.

The first two estates enjoyed privileges by birth, including exemption from taxes. The Third Estate bore the burden of taxation, including the direct tax ('taille') and indirect taxes on essential goods like salt and tobacco. Peasants also owed feudal dues and services to the lords. The population of France grew significantly from 1715 to 1789, increasing demand for food. However, grain production lagged, leading to soaring bread prices. Wages for laborers did not keep pace with rising prices, widening the gap between rich and poor. Subsistence crises, caused by poor harvests due to drought or hail, further worsened the situation.

How A Subsistence Crisis Happens

A subsistence crisis occurs when the basic means of survival are endangered. In 18th-century France, this was triggered by a combination of factors: a population increase leading to higher demand for food, a failure of grain production to meet this demand, rising food prices (especially bread), and wages that did not increase proportionally. Worsening conditions during droughts or hail reduced harvests, leading to scarcity and increased hardship for the majority of the population.

A Growing Middle Class Envisages An End To Privileges

While peasants and workers had revolted against taxes and scarcity before, they lacked organized programs for systemic change. This impetus came from the educated and prosperous members of the Third Estate—merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and officials. They believed that social position should be based on merit, not birth, and advocated for a society of freedom, equal laws, and opportunities. Philosophers like John Locke (refuting divine right of kings), Jean-Jacques Rousseau (social contract), and Montesquieu (separation of powers) influenced these ideas, which were discussed widely in salons and coffee houses, spreading through books and newspapers.

The Outbreak Of The Revolution

In 1774, Louis XVI ascended the throne of France with an empty treasury, burdened by debt from years of war, including the assistance provided to the thirteen American colonies against Britain. To raise taxes, he was forced to convene the Estates General in May 1789, an assembly not called since 1614. The first two estates sent 300 representatives each, while the 600 representatives of the Third Estate demanded voting by assembly as a whole (each member having one vote), a democratic principle advocated by Rousseau. When the king rejected this, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on June 20, 1789, vowing to draft a constitution limiting the monarch's power. Led by figures like Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès, they took the Tennis Court Oath. Meanwhile, public unrest grew due to severe winter, bad harvests, rising bread prices, and hoarding. On July 14, 1789, an agitated crowd stormed the Bastille fortress, symbolizing despotic royal power. This event marked the beginning of a series of revolutionary actions, including peasant revolts in the countryside ("Great Fear") and the eventual abolition of feudal privileges and church taxes by the National Assembly in August 1789.

France Becomes A Constitutional Monarchy

In 1791, the National Assembly completed the constitution, limiting the king's powers by separating them among the legislature, executive, and judiciary, establishing France as a constitutional monarchy. However, voting rights were restricted to "active citizens" (men over 25 paying taxes equivalent to at least 3 days' labor wage), while others were "passive citizens." The constitution was preceded by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, establishing natural and inalienable rights like liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.

France Abolishes Monarchy And Becomes A Republic

Despite the constitutional monarchy, Louis XVI secretly negotiated with the King of Prussia. Fearing foreign intervention, the National Assembly declared war on Prussia and Austria in April 1792. The national anthem "Marseillaise" emerged during this period. In the summer of 1792, fueled by anger over food shortages, the Jacobins incited an insurrection, storming the Palace of the Tuileries and taking the king hostage. The Assembly then voted to imprison the royal family. New elections led to the Convention, which abolished the monarchy on September 21, 1792, declaring France a republic where the government, including the head of state, is elected. Louis XVI was later executed for treason.

The Reign Of Terror

From 1793 to 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety enforced a period of severe control and punishment known as the Reign of Terror. Those deemed "enemies of the republic" (ex-nobles, clergy, political opponents) were arrested, tried, and often guillotined. Robespierre's government implemented price and wage controls, rationed essentials, and mandated the use of "equality bread." Forms of address were changed to "Citoyen" and "Citoyenne" (Citizen). Churches were closed. Relentless pursuit of policies led to Robespierre's own arrest and execution in July 1794.

A Directory Rules France

Following Robespierre's fall, the wealthier middle classes seized power, introducing a new constitution that denied voting rights to the non-propertied. A Directory (an executive body of five members appointed by two elected legislative councils) ruled France, but political instability and clashes between the Directory and councils created a power vacuum, paving the way for Napoleon Bonaparte's rise.

Did Women have a Revolution?

Women were active participants in the French Revolution, hoping for improved lives. They worked in various professions, faced lower wages than men, and had limited access to education. They formed political clubs and newspapers, demanding equal political rights, including the right to vote and hold office. While the revolutionary government introduced some reforms like compulsory education for girls and legalizing divorce, women's political activities were later banned during the Reign of Terror, and their clubs were closed. The struggle for voting rights continued for nearly two centuries, with women in France finally gaining suffrage in 1946.

The Life Of A Revolutionary Woman – Olympe De Gouges

Olympe de Gouges was a prominent politically active woman who criticized the exclusion of women from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. In 1791, she wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen, demanding equal rights. She also criticized the Jacobin government for closing women's clubs and was subsequently tried for treason and executed in 1793.

The Abolition Of Slavery

In 1794, the Convention abolished slavery in French colonies, a significant social reform. This was a response to the labor shortage on plantations, which had previously been met by the triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. However, this measure was short-lived, as Napoleon reintroduced slavery ten years later. Slavery was finally abolished permanently in French colonies in 1848.

The Revolution And Everyday Life

The revolution brought about changes in everyday life, including the abolition of censorship. Freedom of speech and expression became a natural right, leading to a proliferation of newspapers, pamphlets, and books that discussed revolutionary events. Plays, songs, and festivals also played a role in spreading revolutionary ideas like liberty and justice to the common people.

Conclusion

In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself Emperor, modernizing Europe through laws protecting private property and introducing the decimal system. Initially seen as a liberator, his armies eventually became viewed as invaders. Though defeated in 1815, his measures spread revolutionary ideals of liberty and modern laws across Europe. The legacy of the French Revolution lies in the inspiring ideals of liberty and democratic rights, which influenced subsequent movements for freedom and the formation of sovereign nation-states, including inspiring figures like Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy in India.